The Formation of the Film Business in Ukraine (1896–1916)

Author

Volodymyr Myslavskyi

Abstract

This article considers the main stages of the formation and development of the cinema business on the territory of modern Ukraine during the period from 1896 to 1914. The study is based on texts published in the pre-revolutionary film press. The “Pioneers of Cinema” section examines the works of Yosyp Tymchenko, Alfred Fedecki, and K. Krause. Early movie theatres in Kharkiv, Odesa, L’viv, Ekaterinoslav (Dnipro), Poltava, and other cities of Ukraine are discussed in the section “The First Cinemas”, which also discusses their repertoire. The third section, “Cinemas and the Film Distribution System”, is devoted to the formation and development of the cinema business. It first discusses how various cinemas were organised in Ukrainian cities. The second part then examines the formation and specifics of film distribution organisations.

Keywords

Ukraine, history of Ukrainian cinema, cinema of the Russian Empire, film business, pre-revolutionary film distribution, pre-revolutionary cinemas.

Introduction

Emerging within a single state – the Russian Empire –, Ukrainian cinema, it would seem, was naturally defined by the root of the words ‘Rus'’ and ‘Russia’, that is, as ‘Russian’ (expressed by the adjective ‘russkii’), rather than as ‘Rossian' (expressed by the adjective ‘rossiiskii’).¹ Even after the overthrow of tsarism and the establishment of the ‘kingdom of freedom and justice’ in the form of Soviet power, everything that happened before the revolutionary achievements paradoxically continued to be labelled as ‘Russian’ (‘russkii’). The 1986 Kino: Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ also follows this doctrine, reporting that “In the 1920s, a negative attitude towards pre-revolutionary Russian cinema prevailed” (Kino: Entsiklopedicheskii slovar' 1986: 181).

The same tendency can be seen in many studies of the cinemas at the end of the Russian Empire. For example, the Soviet film scholar Semen Ginzburg wrote, in his book Kinematografiia dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii (1963), that Alfred Fedecki was a “pioneer of Russian cinema”,² although he was born in Zhytomyr and worked in Kyiv and Kharkiv. This is not merely a lexical problem.³

There have been many studies of Soviet film devoted to the origins of cinema before 1917, but only small snippets of information about its multinational character have found their way into academic publications. In particular, the Ukrainian film historians Georgii Zhurov (1959: 44) and especially Oleksandr Shimon (1964: 18) managed to devote some attention to pre-revolutionary cinema that reflected Ukrainian themes.

Soviet publications generally identified the history of Ukrainian cinema as beginning only after 1917 and concluding the early period of its existence in 1929 or 1930. Pre-revolutionary films were generally overlooked or ignored. Although this began to change in the late 1950s, the role of national cinemas was still downplayed. For example, Nikolai Lebedev, a major Soviet Russian film historian, insisted that before 1917 only “Malorussian films” (“Little Russian”, a pejorative reference to Ukrainians) were produced, which superficially brought to life stories from “Malorussian life” (Lebedev 1947: 229). Ukrainian cinema, which originated in the Russian Empire, underwent a radical transformation in the late 1910s, as part of the general Ukrainian national revival.

The history of Ukrainian cinema, like that of Russian cinema and any of the other national cinemas of the Russian Empire, should be studied comprehensively. Such research must include film production, distribution and the cinema industry overall, because the film business developed quite successfully in the major Ukrainian cities of Kharkiv, Kyiv, Odesa, and Dnipro (in the past Ekaterinoslav / Katerynoslav).⁴ This article represents an overview of this history.

Pioneers of Cinema

The cinematograph emerged when the West had reached a high level of scientific and technical maturity and learned to create complex and precise instruments. As a technical invention, the cinema was on a par with the greatest discoveries of the 19th and 20th centuries – electricity, the telegraph, the telephone, and radio – which enabled communication between the most distant parts of the globe and expanded human power over space and time.

Since its birth, cinema has been a symbol of humankind’s technical progress, a completely new, unprecedented phenomenon. Its novelty meant it enjoyed huge popularity among all segments of society. In only two or three generations, cinema shifted from being a mere technical novelty and a fairground entertainment to becoming an important part of the everyday life of millions of people, a new artistic medium, a large-scale spectacle, a phenomenon of culture, which was constantly evolving. The emergence of cinema was a logical step in the history of human artistic culture. Possessing the qualities of “visual literature”, “moving paintings”, “light music”, cinema answered the need for a synthesised form of creativity and expanded the potential of figurative expression. Cinema is not only an art form, however; it is also a mechanism for information transmission and documentation, a means of documenting and recording, and archiving events. These functions of cinema became particularly evident in the process of the development, distribution and technical enrichment of cinema.

Investigating and acknowledging the Ukrainian contribution to and contexts of the cinema of the Russian Empire is crucial for understanding the social essence of cinema, its traditions, and the origins of the dynamic development of Ukrainian mass culture, as well as for developing knowledge of global early cinema history.

On December 28, 1895, the first public screening of the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe took place in the Parisian Grand Café on Boulevard des Capucines. The invention of the Lumière Cinématographe was a landmark in its own right, and the date of the first public screening has since been considered the birth of cinema. Even before the Lumière brothers, however, the field of “moving photography” had been explored by many scientists in both Europe and America. Among the most successful designs were Emile Reynaud’s Optical Theater (France, 1888), Jules Marey’s Chronophotograph (France, 1888), Thomas Edison’s Kinetoscope and Vitascope (USA, 1892, 1896), Leon Bouly’s Cynématographe, later Cinématographe (France, 1892-3), the Electrotachioscope by Ottomar Anschütz (Germany, 1893), the Pleograph by Kazimierz Prószyński (Poland, 1894), the Bioscope and Chronophotograph by Georges Demenÿ (France, 1895, 1896), the Bioscope by Max Skladanowsky (Germany, 1895), the Animatograph by Robert Paul (Britain, 1895), and others.

Experiments in the field of moving photography were also conducted in the Russian Empire, and specifically in Ukraine. In 1893, Yosyp Tymchenko, an inventor and engineer from Odesa University, designed an original apparatus for the projection of a stroboscope. Tymchenko, the son of a serf, worked for several years as an apprentice at the workshop of the Imperial University of Kharkiv. In 1874, Tymchenko moved to Odesa, where he got a job at a factory of the Russian Society of Shipping and Trade (now the Shipyard). On March 24, 1880, at a meeting of the physics and mathematics faculty, Tymchenko was elected engineer of the Imperial Novorossiisk University by a closed ballot that included four candidates. On May 1, 1880, he began working in his new post.

In the fall of 1893, Tymchenko designed a jumping mechanism of the ‘snail’ type (ulitka). Building on that, he subsequently created an apparatus “for the analysis of stroboscopic phenomena” and the projection of stroboscopic images onto a screen. At the sixth session of the physics section of the 9th Congress of Russian Naturalists and Physicians in Moscow on January 9, 1894, Tymchenko’s apparatus with an intermittent motion mechanism that projected on a screen was presented to the session participants.

Two days later, the published “Minutes of the 7th meeting of the Physics Section of the 9th Congress of Russian Naturalists and Doctors, January 9, 1894” noted the fact of a public demonstration by Professor M. Liubimov of “a projector for the analysis of stroboscopic phenomena, arranged by the engineer of the Imperial Novorossiisk University, Mr. Tymchenko, to implement his idea. Afterwards, stroboscopic illusions of intermittent motion, made by a special projectile, were shown on the screen [...].” [снаряда для анализа стробоскопических явлений, устроенного в осуществлении его идеи механиком Императорского Новороссийского университета г. Тимченко. В продолжении на экран были показаны стробоскопические иллюзии прерывистого движения, составляемого особым снарядом […] (Anonymous 1894)].

Tymchenko’s apparatus was later exhibited at the Moscow Museum of Applied Knowledge (now the Polytechnic Museum) as “The First Cinematograph for Shooting, Printing, and Displaying Film” (Mislavsky and Gergesha 2012: 28).

The Odesa inventor and physicist K.O. Krause [Краузе] can also be considered one of the first organisers of public screenings in Ukraine. On July 28, 1896, Krause arranged several film screenings in Odesa. The local press reported that he had purchased Lumière brothers’ films, which he would demonstrate on a specially converted camera of his own construction.

Having adapted his apparatus for the projection of Lumière films, Krause began to organise public screenings, but he did not receive support for his endeavour. The newspaper Odesskie novosti / Odessa News accused the inventor of fraud (“Demonstrating the Lumière brothers’ apparatus to the public, the Lumière brothers hastened to declare that they did not sell their cameras to anyone.” Anonymous 1896a)

Soon, the Odesa film demonstrator visited other cities, as well. In November 1898, Krause showed “pictures that come alive” in the Nikitin brothers’ circus in Kharkiv. He then went on a tour of Central Asia.⁵

In parallel to the tours of various cinematographers in the Russian Empire, movie cameras began to be made there for the first time. The first cameraman in the Russian Empire was the Kharkiv-based photographer Alfred Fedecki.

Fedecki had become famous as a first-rate master of photography. His works were repeatedly awarded prizes at national and international photo exhibitions. He took photographic portraits of prominent Ukrainian and Russian artists, such as Aleksandr Glazunov, Marko Kropyvnyts’kyi, Mariya Zankovets’ka, Mykola Sadovs’kyi, Mikhail Medvedev, Marcella Zembrikh, Vladimir Davydov, and others, including the composer Petr Tchaikovskii and the outstanding painter-mariner Ivan Aivazovskii.

From 1880, after graduating from the Vienna Photographic Institute at the Royal Academy of Arts, Fedecki worked as the director of the largest Kyiv photo studio, W. Wysocki. In 1886, Fedecki moved to Kharkiv, where he opened his own photo studio. Creative and enthusiastic, Fedecki was interested in technical inventions. Whenever he saw any innovation, he tried to learn about it and apply it to his favourite art, photography. Fedecki was one of the first in the Russian Empire to create X-ray photographs, and he experimented in the field of sound recording as well. He mastered the technology of colour, stereoscopic and relief photography, and various methods of applying images to fabric, enamel, and porcelain. He invented a new method of photographic production, which allowed a very fine imitation of an etching on coloured metal with an acid-etched pattern image. In September 1896, having returned from another trip abroad, Fedecki placed two advertisements in the Kharkіv press after his acquisition of a film camera:

А. K. Fedecki, photographer to Her Imperial Majesty. He has the honour to inform you that, having returned from a trip abroad, he recommends the newly acquired invention of cinematographic recording with the best kinetograph [sic] system, which allows 120 shots to be made in one second. He also acquired the exclusive right to manufacture for sale in the Russian Empire negative-positive films of various kinds for the Demenÿ chronophotograph.

А. К. Федецкий фотограф Ее Императорского Величества. Честь имеет известить, что, возвратившись из заграничной поездки, рекомендует новоизобретенные кинетографические съемки, посредством приобретенного им самой лучшей системы кинетографа, делающего 120 съемок в течение 1 секунды. При этом приобретено им исключительное право на изготовление для продажи в России пленок негативно­позитивных с разными видами для хронофотографа Демени. (Anonymous 1896b).

Demenÿ’s chronophotograph, which Fedecki had purchased, was a versatile device: it allowed one to shoot, print, and project films. The chronophotograph had a removable lens and worked with 60 mm film, the frame size being 52x23 mm. Intermittent movement was ensured by a ‘finger’-type mechanism (Sokolov 1960: 120).

The first documented filming by Fedecki in Kharkiv is dated September 30, 1896. The newspaper Iuzhnyi krai / Southern Region reported that he “filmed the transfer of the icon of Our Lady of Ozerianska on Ekaterynoslavs’ka Street for 1.5 minutes” (Anonymous 1896c). This was the first film shot on the territory of the Russian Empire by a native cameraman.

The film’s subject – the ceremony of the annual procession from Kuriazh through Kholodna Gora, along Ekaterynoslavs’ka Street to the Assumption Cathedral – was apparently filmed by Fedecki near his studio. It is interesting to note in this connection that a similar photo studio was established in 1908 by an employee of the Bommer Cinema, which was located at the address of Fedecki’s first studio, in 6, Ekaterynoslavs’ka St. (Mislavskii 2011: 24).

The information about Fedecki’s second show, printed in the newspaper Iuzhnyi krai on October 15, 1896, was more specific:

In view of the special interest Paris has in everything Russian, especially in our military life, the famous local photographer A. K. Fedecki, with his Demenÿ kinetograph device, took pictures of Cossack horse riding [dzhigitovka]. A team of the 1st Orenburg Cossack Regiment “posed” for him. The most skilled riders performed, on the racetrack, a number of the most intricate and risky exercises. The kinetograph has captured all these evolutions admirably, so that the film [lenta] of the shoot will be extremely interesting. Copies of it are intended for Paris and other French cities.

Ввиду особенного интереса в Париже ко всему русскому, особенно к нашей военной жизни, известный местный фотограф А. К. Федецкий, находящимся у него аппаратом Демени — кинетографом сделал снимки казачьей джигитовки. “Позировала” джигитская команда 1-го Оренбургского казачьего полка. Наиболее искусные наездники проделали, на скаковом ипподроме, целый ряд самых затейливых и рискованных упражнений. Кинетограф замечательно удачно схватил все эти эволюции, так что лента снимка будет чрезвычайно интересна. Копии с нее предназначены для Парижа и других французских городов (Anonymous 1896d).

Before the first public screening of the film, Fedecki decided to hold what is now called a press screening. He invited reporters from Kharkiv newspapers and representatives of local authorities to his atelier. The guests were shown several films and told about the upcoming screening at the Opera Theatre.

The day before the premiere, rave reviews appeared in the newspapers. Iuzhnyi krai, noted:

This Monday, an extremely interesting session will be held at the Opera Theatre: A. K. Fedecki, our well-known photographer, will show what he calls moving, or living, pictures with the help of his quite advanced cinematograph. From a whole series of such pictures, reproduced on a screen 12 arches wide and 10 arches high, will be shown pictures from the main moments of Their Majesties’ stay in Paris, and then local pictures – the procession during the transfer of the Ozerianskaia icon of the Mother of God from Kuriazh to Khar’kov and the horse riding of the Cossacks of the Orenburg Regiment, filmed here directly by Mr. Fedecki. All the shots of Fedecki’s cinematography that we saw on the screen in his atelier produce a tremendous effect, with which all former moving pictures here can by no means be compared. To reproduce the pictures in the Opera Theatre requires a powerful electric light concentrated at 60 amperes at one point. Mr. Fedecki, keenly interested in the invention of cinematography, will give only one session here, then his apparatus will be sent to Kyiv and Warsaw.

В этот понедельник в оперном театре состоится чрезвычайно интересный сеанс: известный наш фотограф А. К. Федецкий покажет при помощи имеющегося у него вполне усовершенствованного кинематографа, так называемые движущиеся, или живые, фотографии. Из целой серии таких картин, воспроизводимых на экране в 12 арш. ширины и 10 арш. высоты, выдаются снимки с главных моментов пребывания Их Величеств в Париже, и затем местные — крестный ход во время перенесения Озерянской иконы Божьей Матери из Куряжа в Харьков и джигитовка казаков Оренбургского полка, снятые здесь непосредственно г. Федецким. Все снимки кинематографа г. Федецкого, которые мы видели в его ателье на экране, производят громадный эффект, с которым все бывшие здесь “движущиеся фотографии” сравниться ни в коем случае не могут. Для воспроизведения снимков в оперном театре требуется сила электрического света, сконцентрированная в одном пункте в 60 ампер. Г. Федецкий, живо заинтересованный изобретением кинематографа, даст здесь только один сеанс, затем аппарат его будет отправлен в Киев и Варшаву (Anonymous 1896e).

Fedecki’s film show at the Opera Theatre on December 2, 1896, elicited rave reviews from the press. Reviewers noted the high technical quality of filming, emphasising the striking impression left by the demonstration of films on a screen of unprecedented size. A review in Iuzhnyi krai gives a good idea of the atmosphere of this screening:

The kinetograph session arranged by A. K. Fedecki in the Opera Theatre surpassed all expectations in the degree of interest aroused by Edison’s amazing invention. The performance was an overcrowded movie session, which lasted for half an hour, which passed completely unnoticed by the audience, since they were so fascinated by what was happening on the screen. Mr. Fedecki showed 11 pictures, of which two were local, including one representing the trip of Their Majesties from Paris to Saint-Cloud. The shots appeared on the screen on a large scale, so that some of the characters came out as large as if in their natural size. Some of the pictures were spectacular and elicited a great deal of applause and admiration from the audience. The images are actually breathtaking and create a complete illusion. A remarkable picture is the horse riding of the Cossacks of the Orenburg Regiment; the moment of the horse’s fall is particularly astonishing. In this picture some of the faces of the officers of the regiment were so expressively depicted that it was easy to recognise them. […] A certain defect in the display of the pictures was the trembling and not always even reflector light, which is obviously due to the lack of electric power of the club lighting. [...] The tremendous success of the show prompted Fedecki to organise another similar show at the Opera Theatre the following week for charity, but with the addition of other pictures, the number of which extends to twenty. The entire collection Mr. Fedecki puts at the disposal of the governor to distribute to the poor of Khar’kov before the holiday.

Сеанс кинетографа, устроенный А. К. Федецким в оперном театре, превзошел все ожидания по степени интереса, вызванный удивительным изобретением Эдисона. Театр был переполненный, — еще задолго до начала спектакля был вывешен аншлаг о продаже всех мест. После “Севильского цирюльника” начался киносеанс, который длился полчаса времени, который прошел для публики совсем незаметно, так она была увлечена тем, что происходит на экране. Г. Федецкий демонстрировал 11 снимков, из них местных было два, один представлял переезд Их Величеств из Парижа в Сен-Клу. Съемки появились на экране в большом масштабе, так что некоторые персонажи выходили большими от натуральной величины. Некоторые картины были впечатляющими и вызывали бурные аплодисменты и восторг зрителей. Картины на самом деле захватывают и создают полную иллюзию. Много смеха, смешного с недоумением, вызвала картина, изображающая улицу Большой Оперы в Париже, на которой все движения фигур и экипажей происходили не вперед, а назад. Замечательная картина — джигитовка казаков Оренбургского полка; особенное удивление вызывает момент падения лошади. На этой картине некоторые лица офицеров полка были настолько выразительно изображены, что их легко было узнать. [...] Некоторым недочетом в проявлении картин было дрожание их и не всегда ровный свет рефлектора, что обусловлено, очевидно, недостаточностью электрической энергии клубного освещения. [...] Громадный успех сеанса побудил г. Федецкого устроить на следующей неделе с благотворительной целью в оперном театре еще один подобный сеанс, но с прибавлением других картин, число которых простирается до двадцати. Весь сбор г. Федецкий предоставляет в распоряжение г. губернатора, для раздачи бедным г. Харькова перед праздником. (Anonymous 1896f)

Here are some details about Fedecki’s subsequent charity screening:

On Saturday, December 7, 1896, in the Opera Theatre, a second session of the kinetograph will be given by A. K. Fedecki, the photographer of the Imperial Court, for the benefit of the poor of Kharkov' and those who need to buy warm clothing for the holidays from the pawn shop The moving pictures are 9–12 inches in size. All 18 pictures will be shown, including The Imperial Majesties’ departure from Paris for Saint-Cloud and the visit of Félix Faure, President of the French Republic, to the inspection of the troops on July 14. See the programme for details.

В субботу 7 декабря 1896 года в оперном театре в пользу бедных г. Харькова и нуждающихся в выкупе теплой одежды к праздникам из ломбарда будет дан второй сеанс “кинетографа” А. К. Федецкого, фотографа Императорского Двора. Движущиеся фотографии величиною 9–12 аршин. Всех картин будет показано 18, в числе которых будут демонстрироваться выезд Их Императорских Величеств из Парижа в Сен-Клу, а также приезд президента французской республики Феликса Фора на смотр войск 14 июля. Подробности в программе (Anonymous 1896g).

Fedecki, according to the newspapers, was filming quite intensively, as evidenced by the fact that the programme of the next session, which was held on December 7, included several new subjects:

The second session of the cinema, arranged for charitable purposes by A. K. Fedecki in the Opera Theatre, attracted a large audience. The pictures this time were even better and caused the public’s delight. Of the new local pictures, the view of our station at the moment of the departure of the train with the bosses on the platform was very entertaining.

Второй сеанс кинетографа, устроенный с благотворительной целью А. К. Федецким в оперном театре, привлек много публики. Картины на этот раз удались еще лучше и вызвали полный восторг публики. Из новых местных снимков очень занимателен был вид нашего вокзала в момент отхода поезда с находящимся на платформе начальством (Anonymous 1896h).

In mid-January 1897, however, an event occurred that prompted Fedecki to cease his film activities: the first demonstration of the Lumière brothers’ films and projector in Kharkiv took place in the hall of the Opera Theatre. The first screenings of Lumière films in Kharkiv did not fundamentally influence Fedecki’s decision. He perceived them as a temporary phenomenon and still hoped to show his films in France and to demonstrate his cinematograph in other cities of Ukraine and Russia.

In January 1897, Fedecki visited Moscow, where he filmed Katanie na Krasnoi ploshschadi / A Ride in Red Square (Zhurov 1959: 127). In April, according to newspaper reports, he “plan[ned] to shoot different moments of the popular festivities, on Konnaia Square for his cinematograph” (“планирует снимать разные моменты народного гуляния, на Конной площади для своего синематографа” Anonymous 1897a) in Kharkiv. On the second day of the Easter holidays (April 16) Fedecki produced in Kharkiv the announced filming:

People’s festivities held on Konnaia Square during the holidays were not very lively, which was largely due to the weather, cold with wind and dust, which got into one’s eyes. […] Photographer A. K. Fedecki shot some scenes of the folk festivities to improve his cinematograph, but with great difficulty, because the wind did not allow him to position the device firmly.

Народные гуляния, устроенные на Конной площади, в настоящие праздники не отличались оживлением, чему способствовало в значительной степени состояние погоды, холодной с ветряной пылью, засыпавшей глаза. […] Художник-фотограф А. К. Федецкий снял несколько сцен народного гуляния для усовершенствованного им синематографа, хотя с большим трудом, так как ветер не позволял твердо установить аппарат (Anonymous 1897b).

On August 21, 1897, Fedecki began another film. This time he decided to record a small game scene – a performance on the stage of the Open Theatre of the commercial club of the magician Albani:

A. K. Fedetskii, a local photographer-artist, who showed cinematography at the Opera Theatre with great success last year, is now producing pictures for the cinematograph. Yesterday, we were able to be present when the following original scene was shot. A wannabe on the stage of the Open Theatre of the Commercial Club, Mr. Albani, with his eyes blindfolded with a handkerchief, draws on paper a portrait of Bismarck. Having finished this portrait, Mr. Albani begins another. With a few strokes done, he quickly rips a sheet of paper off the frame, and before the eyes of the astonished audience appears the face of our theatre actor, A. P. Smirnov.

Местный фотограф-художник А. К. Федецкий, с большим успехом демонстрировавший в прошлом году кинематограф в оперном театре, в настоящее время производит снимки для кинематографа. Вчера нам удалось присутствовать при снимке следующей оригинальной сценки. Подвизающийся на сцене открытого театра коммерческого клуба г. Альбани, с завязанными платком глазами, рисует на бумаге портрет Бисмарка. Окончив этот портрет, г. Альбани приступает к другому. Сделав несколько штрихов, он быстро срывает с подрамника лист бумаги, и пред глазами изумленных зрителей появляется физиономия артиста нашего театра А. П. Смирнова (Anonymous 1897c).

This first known film shot in the Russian Empire, for which an actor posed, was a forerunner of the later feature films.

As for the creative aspect, there is no doubt that Fedecki had mastered filming techniques to ‘perfection’ (according to the contemporary reviews) and could safely compete with any operator in terms of visual prowess. However, other circumstances forced Fedecki to stop his activity.

In early 1897, the situation of cinematography in the Russian Empire was changing dramatically. With only outdated equipment and a limited number of subjects, it was impossible to compete with the well-established and highly technological film production of the Lumière brothers at the time. As such, Fedecki, unable to find domestic marketing opportunities for his films and unable to secure commissions from Gaumont, was forced to discontinue filmmaking. In addition, it was at this time that he began a new project – the opening of the first school of photography in the Russian Empire.

Summing up Fedecki’s film activities, it can be said that he organised film shootings and screenings, including for promotional and charitable purposes, to ensure the competitiveness of his enterprise. However, it is also fair to say that the cinematograph was perceived by Fedecki first and foremost as a remarkable creation of the human mind. He was far less interested in the financial profits of the new spectacle than in the anticipation of the artistic and visual possibilities of the cinema screen.

The First Cinemas in Ukraine

After the first public showing of the Lumière Cinématographe, the new invention appeared in other European countries. From 1896 to 1897, in what is today the territory of Ukraine, the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe ran in Odesa, L’viv (at that time called Lemberg), Mykolaiv (formerly Nikolaev), Kherson, Kyiv, Kharkiv, Chernihiv, Dnipro, Poltava, Symferopol’, Sevastopol’, Zhytomyr, and other cities.

On July 7, 1896, demonstrations of the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe began in Aleksandrivskii Park (now Shevchenko Park, Odesa). The Novorossiiskii telegraf / Novorossiisk Telegraph newspaper reported on the shows:

Aleksandrovskii Park. On the right-hand side of the main café is a daily chronograph from Paris from 7 a.m. to 12 noon. Lively and moving photography. Shows every ½ hour. Entrance 25 k.

Александровский парк. С правой стороны главного буфета ежедневно от 7 часов до 12 часов ночи хрономатограф из Парижа. Оживленная и движущаяся фотография. Сеансы каждые ½ часа. Вход 25 к. (Anonymous 1896i.)

The public was shown a programme of several films. According to M. Landesman, one of the most senior workers in Ukrainian cinema and an employee at the Odesskaia khudozhestvennaia kontora / Odessa Art Bureau, the following films by the Lumière brothers were on the programme in Odesa: L’arroseur arrosé / The Sprinkler Sprinkled, La sortie de l’usine Lumière à Lyon / Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory in Lyon, Démolition d’un mur / ​​Demolition of a Wall, and Le Repas de bébé / Baby’s Dinner (Landesman 1972: 13).

Shortly after the first screenings, a number of shows were held with a new, greatly expanded programme. In addition, the Odesa Russian Theatre screened other Lumière brothers’ films: Scène du couronnement du Tsar de Russie / Scene from the Coronation of the Czar of Russia, Baignade en mer / A View of the Sea, L’arrivée d’un train en gare de La Ciotat / The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat Station (Zhurov 1959: 9).

The next touring film operators to arrive in Odesa were the Frenchmen P[aul] Decaux and Marius Chapuis. They arrived in Odesa on August 17, 1896. The first session took place on August 18. From September 20 to 24, the French held screenings in the Russian Theatre and the New Theatre (Hosejko 2001: 10).

The organiser of the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe sessions in Kyiv was the actor, director and theatrical entrepreneur Mykola Solovtsov. In 1891, Solovtsov had founded the Association of Dramatic Actors and established a theatre that became one of the best in Kyiv. On December 14, 1896, he organised the first demonstration of the Cinématographe by the Lumière brothers at the Theatre Bergognier (театр Бергонье). The success of the first film screenings prompted Solovtsov to extend the public showing of Lumière films. Film screenings were held daily in the Solovtsov Theatre until February 20, 1898.

The autumn of 1897 saw the resumption of film screenings in Odesa. A representative of the Lumière company, Félix Mesguich, arranged two screenings at Odesa’s Bol’shoi Theatre, the first on November 11 and the second on November 13. On November 11, 1897, Odesans also had the opportunity to see a film programme by Pathé brothers, which included films made in Odesa.

On August 7, 1897 the French operators Klein and Chapuis started showing movies in the Merchant’s Club in Kyiv. They accompanied the Nikitin brothers’ circus troupe that toured Kyiv that year.

The French cameraman Mesguich visited Kyiv in November 1898. Before that he had been to Odesa where he filmed some scenes of local life. According to press reports, a session of the Cinématographe of the Lumière brothers took place on November 24, 1898 in the Moritz Circus (1898).

One of the first public screenings of moving images in Ukraine took place in Kharkiv on July 7, 1896. A representative of the British firm R.W. Paul came to Kharkiv with his apparatus, an Animatography. The largest Kharkiv newspaper Iuzhnyi krai reported on these sessions:

The garden of the Seinematograph Commercial Club, unprecedented news: living, moving photography. A huge success abroad, and more recently in Moscow and St Petersburg. Just for a few days.

Сад коммерческого клуба “Сейнематограф”, небывалая новость: живая, движущаяся фотография. Громадный успех за границей, а в последнее время в Москве и Петербурге. Только на несколько дней. (Anonymous 1896m)

During the summer season of 1896, a programme of ten films was shown in the Commercial Garden, the indoor summer theatre of the Commercial Club. Among them were the following Robert W. Paul productions: English Boxers, Fire in London, Traffic on Tower Bridge, Serpentine Dance, Bridge over the Thames, Serpentine and others. Iuzhnyi krai published a laudatory review of the first screening of the “seinematograf”:

The indoor summer theatre in the Commercial Garden is currently showing a cinematograph (living photography), which attracts a relatively large audience. The pictures produced by the cinematograph are quite big and come out very well, and some of them are almost illusory, making the viewers forget that what they see is not reality, but pictures. We particularly liked the picture English Boxers and Fire in London, in which a self-sacrificing fireman rescues a child from a house in flames, holding the child in one arm and using the other to climb down a ladder. Also good are Traffic on Tower Bridge, with pedestrians and carriages moving backwards and forwards, Serpentine Dance, etc.

В закрытом летнем театре коммерческого сада показывается в настоящее время синематограф (живая фотография), который привлекает сравнительно много публики. Картины, воспроизводимые синематографом, довольно больших размеров и выходят очень хорошо, а некоторые из них прямо-таки доводят до иллюзии, заставляя зрителей забыть, что перед ними не действительность, а картины. Особенно нам понравились картины, которые изображают “Английских боксеров” и “Пожар в Лондоне”, где самоотверженный пожарный спасает из охваченного со всех сторон пламенем дома ребенка, держа его одной рукою, а с помощью другой спускается по лестнице. Хороши также “Мост через Темзу”, по которому совершается назад и вперед движение пешеходов и экипажей, “Танец серпантин”, и т. д. (Anonymous 1896n)

In mid-January 1897, the first demonstration of the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe in Kharkiv took place in the Opera Theatre (1897d). In the summer of 1897, film screenings resumed, with about 100 films available to demonstrate.

The Lumière Cinématographe is radically different from those previously shown in Kharkov’. Its advantage over previous ones lies mainly in the fact that it has almost none of the fluctuations of light which strongly affect vision and disturb the illusion. The demonstration of the Cinématographe was accompanied by applause from the audience, at whose request many moving pictures were repeated.

Кинематограф г. Люмьера кардинально отличается от тех кинематографов, которые раньше были демонстрированы в Харькове, — отмечала газета «Южный край». — Преимущество его перед предыдущими, главным образом, состоит в том, что в нем почти нет тех колебаний света, которые сильно влияют на зрение и нарушают иллюзию. Демонстрация кинематографа сопровождается аплодисментами публики, по требованию которой, много движущихся картин было повторено. (Vishnevskii 1937: 65–66)

The Lumière sessions in Kharkiv ran until the end of 1897:

The Lumière Cinématographe. Drama Theatre. Pictures by the French technician Georges Pradin, who exhibited at the Imperial Court and was awarded a gold watch with an eagle.

Синематограф Люмьера. Драматический театр. Картины показывает французский техник Georges Рradіny, который демонстрировал картины при Высочайшем Дворе, и награжден золотыми часами с орлом (Anonymous 1897e).

In 1896 and 1897, the film demonstrators Francis Doublier, Paul Decaux, Marius Chapuis, Charles Moisson and Klein, toured many cities in Ukraine. On October 19, 1896, Decaux gave the first demonstration of the Lumière Cinématographe in Nikolaev / Mykolaiv, and on November 5 in Kherson. Moisson and Klein alternated between Kharkiv and Kishinev. Chapuis and Grunwald met Decaux in Chernihiv, where they organised the premiere of the Cinématographe in the Municipal Theatre on February 9, 1897, and in Ekaterinoslav / Dnipro and Poltava on March 18. In due course, A. Grunwald hired and trained local technicians. One of them, Sergei Katarskii, was involved in film screenings in Symferopol’ on May 29 and in Sevastopol’ on June 14. On August 7, 1897, Decaux went to Zhytomyr with Katarskii.

The first public showing of the Lumière brothers’ in Lemberg / Lwów / L'viv,⁶ organised by Francis Doublier, took place in January 1897. The venue was the Theatre Skarbkowski (now the M. Zankovets’ka Theatre). Screenings were held there between January 9 and 20. The Polish journalist Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski wrote about the first performance of the brothers’ Cinématographe in L’viv:

It is impossible to describe our excitement, or that of the audience in L’viv, who gathered for the cinematic performance in the theatre. After the performance was over, the whole theatre began to shout when a regiment of French cuirassiers in armour and helmets, galloping from afar, approaching the audience, jumped out from the screen. The musicians did not dare perform their duties at this time, so as not to disturb the experience for the audience. That’s how the entire theatre from the gallery to the stalls shouted with delight, and some audience members covered their faces with their hands when they saw images of people popping out of the white screen.

Невозможно описать ни нашего восхищения, ни восхищения львовской публики, которая собралась на кинематографическом представлении в театре. После завершения представления, когда полк французских кирасиров в доспехах и шлемах, мчась галопом из далека, приближаясь к публике, выскакивали из-за экрана, весь театр начал кричать. Музыканты в это время не осмеливались исполнять свои обязанности, чтобы не мешать впечатлениям публики. Вот так весь театр от галерки до партера кричал с восхищением, а некоторые зрители закрылись руками, когда увидели изображения выскакивающих с белого экрана людей. (Gіerszewska 1995: 27)

A few months later, the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe resumed. According to the Polish Gazeta narodowa, from April 5–23, 1897, the theatre hosted film screenings as a separate programme every day from 3.30 to 7.30 p.m. (Gershevska 2004: 10). In 1897, several more screenings took place at B. Schenk’s Kontіnentalny Eden-Teatr in L’viv, and a film from local life was also shown in a L’viv coffee house. Shortly afterwards, the Lumière brothers’ Cinématographe was shown in Kolomyia and Boryslav (Hosejko 2001: 9).

In 1898, the first cinema screenings were held in Bukowina / Bukovyna, which at that time belonged to the Austrian part of the Habsburg Empire. The “living photography” shows in Czernowitz / Cernăuți / Chernivtsi were organised by the technician Marian Kwadrowski in the hall of the Zentral Hotel in mid-January. During one of the shows on March 3, films such as L’arroseur arrosé (1895), L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (1895), and others were screened. According to the Bukovina newspaper, in December 1899 Cinématographe sessions were shown in the house of the merchant Pailer (Kalenyk 1999).

Between 1898 and 1900, the Lumière brothers gradually withdrew from film production. They did not believe in the future of their Cinématographe and considered it useless to invest in productions with no future. In addition, they had serious competitors – the powerful companies Gaumont and the Pathé brothers, which were funded by major French banks. In the early 1900s, the Lumières therefore decided to sell the patent for the Cinématographe and return to their core business of making and selling photographic products (Sadul’ 1958: 261–263).

For the first three years of cinema’s existence, the Lumière catalogue averaged 400 films of 20 metres each. Between 1898 and 1903 this figure dropped to 50 films (Sadul’ 1958: 261). In 1903, the Lumière brothers’ catalogue still largely consisted of slightly modified versions of the successful 1896–1897 on-location films. In the summer of 1898, the Lumières ceased their production of films. From 1897 to 1900, the production by the French firms Gaumont and Pathé brothers was quite plentiful. Its total meterage reached 3,000 metres (Sadul’ 1958: 252). This figure is lower than that of the Lumières. However, Pathé brothers and Gaumont were able to produce feature films, something the Lumière brothers had hardly ever endeavoured.

During these years, the practice of spontaneous fairground cinematography was gradually replaced by a system of regular movie screenings. In many countries of Europe, the United States, and the Russian Empire the first cinemas began to open.

Cinemas and the Film Distribution System

In the early 1900s, with the emergence of a stable public interest in the cinema, touring film demonstrators were gradually replaced by cinemas, or, as they were then called, “illusions”. Previously, the owners of mobile film units had rented circus marquees, empty warehouses, and so on. Special screening rooms were rare. In Kyiv, film screenings were held in the Devigne Circus (цирк Девинье, 1901), in the M. Shul’tz-Ben’kovskaiia Museum-Panopticum (Музей-паноптикум М. Шульц-Беньковской, 1902), in the Krutikov Circus (цирк Крутикова, 1904) and in the Bergognier Theatre (1904).

In Odesa, exhibitors rented premises on Kulikovo Pole and Sloboda. As a rule, these were the French companies Pathé brothers and Gaumont.

In L’viv, when the Viennese film studio Urania began operating, film screenings were organised in the Hausmann and Mikolasch Passages (1897) and also in the Philharmonic Hall in the Skarbkowski Theatre. At the end of 1906, the Philharmonic Hall became home to the Elektryczny Teatr, the summer theatre housed the Kontіnentalny Eden-Teatr and the travelling theatres of Franz Oser and Melchior Mayblum (Gershevska 2004: 8, 11–12).

In Poltava, in 1903, the exhibitors Azraelian and Kholodovskii rented premises on Petrovskaia Square. Their Bioscope (Биоскоп) operated for several summers (Anonymous DAPO: 125–126).

At the same time, the largest of such premises, Electric Bioscope (Электрический биоскоп), opened in Kherson (Pivorovich, Diachenko 2003: 36). The Electric Bioscope was impressive in size. It comprised a large auditorium, a waiting room, a stage with a screen, a utility room for musicians, a room for a self-contained electrical installation and several smaller utility rooms. The “illusion hall” not only showed films, but also hosted guest artists: magicians, singers, reciters, dancers, and soothsayers (Zakharov 2006: 14).

This situation persisted in Ukraine until the mid-1900s, when landlords, who had previously provided premises for cinemas readily and without charge, began to rent them out. The first permanent cinemas in Ukraine appeared in Odesa, Yalta, Kyiv, and Kharkiv.

By the end of 1905, five permanent cinemas operated in Odesa. In 1904, the Boian Cinema (Боян) had opened in Symferopol’ (Prusakov and Kozlov 1999); in Yalta, the first permanent cinema, First Yalta Illiuzion (1-й Ялтинский Иллюзион), was opened. At the same time, another Illiuzion (Иллюзион) opened in Feodosiia (Likhotvornik 2004: 25).

In 1905 and 1906, permanent cinemas appeared in Kyiv, Kharkiv, and other Ukrainian cities. A 300-seat Lux cinema began to operate in 1905 (Likhachev 1927: 30). In 1907, the Electro Bioscope (Электробиоскоп) cinema opened (Zhurov 1959: 16). At the same time, the Vitagraph (Витаграф), Illiuzion (Иллюзион), and other cinemas opened in Kyiv. On August 15, 1908 a second cinema theatre in a purpose-built building, Grand-Théâtre Express, appeared.

In 1906, M. Zubkova opened the First Biotheatre (1-й Био­театр) in Kharkiv. At the same time, the Edenteatr (Эден­театр), Bioscope and Michel cinemas were opened. Five more cinemas were opened in Kharkiv in 1907, among them were Illiuzion (Иллюзион) and Dmitrii Kharitonov’s Apollo and The Whole World (Весь мир) (Anonymous 1908b).

In Poltava, the Elektrooriginal Bioscope (Электрооригинал биоскоп) opened in 1906 in a purpose-built building (DAPO: 125–126), in 1907, the Grand Théâtre de Paris, in 1909 Lux and the Illiuzion (Anonymous DAPO: 125–126).

In those years, there was no seating system in Ukraine (as was the case everywhere in the Empire in this early period); people were allowed into the hall continuously and tickets were sold without seats being assigned. There would be people standing in the auditorium, looking for a seat, disturbing other viewers in order to see the film. The audience was bothered by the noise of the projector and the hum of other viewers reading the credits aloud. People would go in and out as they pleased.

The crackling of a lamp and the lingering smell of ether were indispensable sensations in the early days of cinema. Another disadvantage of ether-oxygen projectors was that they quickly became too hot. Not only did they burn out the film, but they also increased the temperature in the auditorium. In winter, people would pop into the cinema to get warm. Between 1905 and 1908, cinemas were often named after the brand of film projector used in it: Vitagraph (Витаграф), Electro Bioscope (Электробиоскоп, Kyiv), Vitagraph Attraction (Витограф­аттракцион), Edison (Эдисон, Odesa), Bioscope (Биоскоп), Pategraf (Патеграф, Kharkiv), Biograph (Биограф, Ekaterinoslav), Biograph Zaria (Биограф Заря, Elisavetgrad), Electro-original Bioscope (Электрооригинал биоскоп), Pategraph (Патеграф, Poltava), Bioscope Zvezda (Биоскоп Звезда, Kremenchug), Biograph (Биограф, Zhytomyr), French Electrobiograph (Французский электробиограф, Yalta), Biograph (Биограф, Symferopol’), French Electrobiograph (Французский электробиограф, Sevastopol’), Edison Cinéphone (Синефон Эдисона, L’viv).

Between 1907 and 1911, permanent cinemas appeared in other Ukrainian towns. Property owner Zaslavskii built the Soleil and Coliseum (Колизей) cinemas in Dnipro. Later, the Blitz, Roll, and Modern (Модерн) cinemas started operating.

More than ten cinemas were opened in L’viv between 1907 and 1912. In 1907, the cinema Bellevue; in 1908 Avenue and Wanda; in 1911 Wonderland, Illiuzion, Colosseum, Gioconda, Сasino de Paris and Olіmpіa, Apollo. In 1912, several more cinemas started operating in L’viv – Kopernik, Elit and The Royal Cinema (Kotlobulatova 1996: 4). Almost all cinemas in L’viv were housed in adapted premises. An exception was the Grażyna Cinema, which was built in 1912 according to a special design. The cinema business developed quite rapidly. From 1912 to 1914, over 30,000 spectators attended cinemas in L’viv each week (Hendrykowska 1993: 253).

In 1908, the first permanent cinema, Parisian Illusion (Парижский иллюзион), was opened in Kherson. Later, the Record (Рекорд) cinema opened in the city. In 1910, the Lotos (Лотос) Cinema with 400 seats started operating, and in 1910 the Illusion (Иллюзия) Cinema opened its first location. The Ampir (Ампир) cinema opened at the same time (Pivorovich and Dyachenko 2003: 23). The largest cinema in Kherson at the time was the Electric Bioscope (Zakharov 2008: 13).

The Olimp (Олимп) and Khudozhestvennyi cinemas open in Nikolaev / Mykolaiv. At this time the city also operated The Biggest Cinema (Самый большой кинотеатр), Illiuzion and Hermitage (Эрмитаж).

In Elisavetgrad, the cinemas Olimp (Олимп), Biograf Zaria and Illiuzion opened; in Poltava – Pategraf (Патеграф); in Konstantinograd – Lux (Vsia Poltava i Guberniia. Adresno-spravochnaia kniga. 1912a); in Mariupol Illiuzion, ХХ век / XX Century; in Kamianets-Podilskyi – Illiuzion (Иллюзион), the Summer Cinema (Летний кинематограф); in Kremenchug – Bioscope Zvezda (Биоскоп Звезда); in Symferopol – Lotos (Лотос), Illiuzion. According to Cine-Fono, in 1911 there were five cinemas in Nikolaev / Mykolaiv, two in Sevastopol’, and five in Symferopol’ (Anonymous 1911b).

Between 1909 and 1912, several cinemas were opened in Czernowitz / Chernivtsi. In 1910, Comet; in 1912–1913, Moderne, Urania and Palatul Național (Kalenyk 1993: 2).

Cinema was becoming a fairly lucrative enterprise. More and more wealthy people were interested in it. V. Yuritsyn, a large landowner, bought films and equipment from England and became the owner of the biggest cinema in Nikolaev / Mykolaiv and of the movie house Record in Kherson. The banker Hari controlled the Express (Экспресс) and Coliseum cinemas in Odesa. General Shostak built the Grand Richelieu Theatre (Большой Ришельевский театр) in Odesa. Begun opened the Eagle (Орел). Krupenskii built the Utochkino Cinema (Кино Уточ­кино) in Odesa. One of the biggest builders of Odesa, Ya. Kramarenko, built about ten cinemas – Lux (Люкс ), XX Century (ХХ век), Chantecler (Шантеклер), Zaria (Заря), Record (Рекорд), Beaumonde (Бомонд) and others – within a few years (Landesman 1972: 30).

In 1912, more than 25 cinemas operated in Kyiv, 18 in Odesa, 12 in Kharkiv and 20 in L’viv. In 1913, 35 cinemas operated in Kyiv. In 1914, the following cinemas operated in Luhansk: Khudozhestvennyi, Express, Hermitage, Illiuzion (Anonymous n.d.).

Donetsk had the Coliseum cinema (500 seats), Saturn (650 seats) and Illusion (350 seats) before 1917 (Stepkin 2004: 165–166).

In the mid-1900s, fire safety regulations were formed for the normal operation of cinemas. In 75 paragraphs, the required dimensions of the hall, the foyer, the control room, and the box office were clearly set out, as were procedures for ensuring fire safety, storing film, and so on. Cinema premises had to be separated from neighbouring solid walls and there had to be at least five sazhens [10.5 metres] of free space around free-standing walls. It was now compulsory to comply with fire protection regulations in order to open a cinema:

The doors must open from the hall and the foyer to the outside, with exit signs above the doors, and the apparatus box inside must be upholstered in asbestos, from table height to ceiling. The table, ceiling, and floor, as well as the door, should be upholstered in iron over felt. In addition, all ceilings in the room must be checked as to their strength. Prior to opening, the electric light fittings and the above instructions of the committee must be checked.

Необходимо чтобы двери отворялись из зала и фойе наружу, над дверьми были надписи “выход”, будка аппарата внутри должна быть обита асбестом, от высоты стола до потолка. Стол, потолок и пол, а также дверь должны быть обиты железом по войлоку. Кроме того, все потолки в помещения должны быть проверены относительно прочности. Перед открытием должно быть проверено электрическое устройство освещения и выполнение вышеуказанных указаний комиссии. (Anonymous DAHOa: 17).

These regulations remained in force until 1914, when a new circular letter (No. 1590, July 19, 1914) was drafted, which stipulated that cinemas should only be built in masonry buildings. Chairs in the auditorium had to be fixed firmly to the floor. The number of seats in each row was to be no more than 12. It was forbidden to have cinemas in basements and higher than the first floor (Anonymous 1914: 4–7).

However, despite the precautions taken, fires in cinemas due to the carelessness of the projectionists were quite frequent. The fires in the cinemas were widely reported in the press and the public was well informed about them.

As a rule, the auditoriums of the first cinemas held between 120 and 200 seats. However, cinemas quickly began to change their layout. In many theatres, a projectionist no longer ‘cranked’ the film in the auditorium. The projection room became a separate allocated place. A gramophone or a pianist always accompanied the projection.

Cinema owners tried to encourage more cultivated behaviour among audience members at the screenings. The management of the Modern cinema, for example, urged its visitors to be polite with the following message:

The management of the theatre respectfully asks the audience not to hurry and not to jostle at the entrance to the auditorium, as tickets are always sold exactly for the number of seats, to take seats only according to the tickets purchased, not to knock about with canes or stamp your feet during the demonstration of the picture.

Дирекция театра убедительно просит уважаемую публику не спешить и не толпиться при входе в зрительный зал т. к. билеты всегда продаются точно по числу мест, занимать места только согласно купленным билетам, при демонстрации картин ногами и палками не стучать. (Anonymous 1909a)

For the convenience of the public, the Express cinema management installed an upgraded screen in the cinema. The cinema’s programme stated, among other things:

For the public’s information! The pictures are shown on a newly invented phosphorescent screen, Reflex, patented by I. D. Shcherbakov. No flashing! Complete illusion! Plasticity, relief! Distance and depth of perspective! Only in New York Cinema Theatre Express, Ekaterinoslavskaia, 29. One can really get the illusion of ‘living photography’. So detailed and transparent is the image conveyed that one receives the illusion of reality and infinite distance.

К сведению публики! Картины демонстрируются на новоизобретенном фосфоресцирующем экране “Рефлекс”, патент И. Д. Щербакова. Отсутствие мигания! Полная иллюзия! Пластика, рельеф! Даль и глубина перспективы! Только в нью-йоркском синематеатре “Экспресс”, Екатеринославская, 29. Можно действительно получить полную иллюзию “живой фотографии”. Столь детально и прозрачно передается демонстрируемая картина, что получается полная иллюзия действительности и беспредельной дали (Anonymous 1909b).

On the occasion of Kharitonov’s opening of the Аполло / Apollo cinema in Kharkiv, the deed of October 12, 1907 noted:

The room for the proposed cinematograph theatre is conveniently located for the public, with ladies’ and men’s washrooms in separate rooms, two fireproof staircases for the front and back rooms, and four exits from the auditorium. The capacity of the auditorium is 190 people. In addition, there are two foyers attached to the hall.

Помещение под предполагаемый театр­кинематограф расположено удобно для публики, имеет дамскую и мужскую уборные отдельно в разных помещениях, имеет две несгораемые лестницы парадную и черную, из зала имеется четыре выхода. Число публики может быть до 190 человек. Кроме того, имеется при зале два фойе. (Anonymous DAHOc: 17).

Increasingly, those who wanted to open cinemas had to go to professional architects in order to construct a new building or furnish a cinema space according to the requisite standards. In 1908 and 1909, Ukraine began to see the opening of cinemas built to special designs. One of the first purpose-built cinemas appeared in Kharkiv in 1908. The French Bommer brothers opened a 400-seat cinema. The project was based on the designs of similar venues in Paris, Moscow, and St Petersburg – the ground floor was an auditorium, the second floor a foyer with a buffet. The grand opening of the cinema took place on March 3, 1908 (1908с). And even a specialist theatre weekly, Театр и искусство / Theatre and Art, noted that among the 11 cinemas in Kharkiv, “the lavishly furnished Bommer Theatre still attracts the public” (Anonymous 1908d: 450).

The Express Cinema in Kyiv was owned by Anton Schanzer [sometimes also spelled: Shantser]. On August 15, 1908, the newspaper Kievlianin noted:

Today is the opening of The Express, Kreshchatik, no. 25 (opposite the post office), the best and only Russian theatre-cinema in terms of improvements and beauty. In place of the former The Express Bio, a new Express is opening, which deserves everyone’s attention on account of its technical improvements and the essential rebuilding of the interior space. [...] The Theatre Express auditorium is a grandiose space, finished with extraordinary luxury and subtle elegance. The Theatre Express auditorium is a grandiose space with a surprisingly luxurious and elegant design. Its special ventilation system refreshes the air so that you don’t feel too hot or cold, and the air is cleaner and cooler than that outside. The foyer of the theatre is luxuriously decorated with mirrors and tapestries and an original novelty is introduced for the public – a cafe stocked with the best products and refreshments. It is undoubtedly the first and only theatre in Kiev and, as specialists say, in all of the Russian Empire.

Сегодня открытие лучшего и единственного в России по усовершенствованию и красоте театра-синематографа “Экспресс”, Крещатик, № 25 (против почты). На месте прежнего “The Express Bio” открывается новый “Экспресс”, который по усовершенствованиям в техническом отношении и существенной перестройке внутреннего помещения заслуживает всеобщего внимания. […] Зрительный зал театра “Экспресс” представляет собой грандиозное помещение, отделанное с удивительной роскошью и тонким изяществом. Специальная вентиляция до того освежает воздух, что не только не чувствуется какой-нибудь духоты или повышения температуры, но наоборот воздух чище и прохладнее уличного. Фойе театра роскошно отделано зеркалами и гобеленами, и для публики введена оригинальная новинка — кафе, снабженное самыми лучшими продуктами и прохладительными напитками. Безусловно, это первый и единственный театр в Киеве, и как говорят специалисты, всей России (Kovalinskii 2012).

After 1908, the most important element of the cinema’s interior was the foyer. As film historian Yuri Tsivian points out, the film foyer emerged as a functional space at a time when the formula for cinematography began to change (the lengthening of the footage of a film affected the length of the film session and, consequently, the waiting time for the audience).

Although the institution of the foyer was borrowed in its ready-made form from the theatre, unlike the stage and curtain it could not be considered an architectural extravagance.

In an attempt to outdo each other in originality, cinema owners tried to appeal to audiences and advertised the uniqueness of the foyer along with the films as an added value:

The New York Express Cinema. Foyer-grotto. For the audience’s convenience there is a waiting room in the theatre, artistically furnished and presenting a fantastic “Grotto” with spectacular electric lighting.

Нью-йоркский синематеатр “Экспресс”. Фойе­грот. Для удобства публики при театре устроена ожидальня, художественно обставленная и представляющая фантастический “Грот­модерн” при эффектном электрическом освещении (Anonymous 1908e).

The atmosphere in the foyer, or as they used to say in those days “the waiting room” (“зал ожидания”)”, bore the same imprint of the sentimental idyll that had enthralled observers of a cinema repertoire laden mainly with French melodramas with happy endings: “The 1st Biotheatre is newly renovated. The magnificent decor, “The Temple of the Buddha”, was painted by the renowned artist-decorator V. P. Moskovskii.” [1-й био­театр» заново отремонтирован. Написаны роскошные декорации “Храм Будды” известным художником-декоратором В. П. Московским] (Anonymous 1910).

The Monte-Carlo (Монте-Карло) cinema in Kyiv tried to attract the audience with a mass of colours in the foyer, The Whole World (Весь мир) theatre with a fountain, and so on.

Towards the mid-1910s, when Italian historical ‘peplums’ began to dominate world cinema distribution, the appearance of the cinematic foyer changed dramatically. Following the example of the capitals, one of the conditions for comfortable foyers in provincial cinemas was the presence of tropical plants, usually palm trees.

It is interesting to note that cinema owners in Ukraine copied not only the interior design of cinemas in the capital, but also the texts of their advertisements. The programme of the Ampir Cinema in Kharkiv advertised daily concerts in the cinema’s winter garden and a first-class tea and fruit buffet (1913c).

From 1909 to 1914, a tendency toward gigantomania appeared in Ukrainian film distribution. Special cinemas began to be built to replace the early ‘illusions’, which lacked basic public amenities and safety precautions. They significantly improved conditions for the viewer: the halls were arranged with sloping floors, comfortable chairs were installed, observing the fire-safety distance between the rows and the walls, provided with ventilation and at least two emergency exits with red lights over them. Each theatre had a policeman and a soldier on duty at all times and reserved seats for them in the auditorium. Fashionable giant cinemas were opened in Kyiv, Odesa, Kharkiv, L’viv, Ekaterinoslav (Dnіprо) and other cities. The new cinemas were almost as luxurious and decorated as cinemas in Moscow, St Petersburg and major European cities.

The largest in Odesa, the Biograph (Биограф) cinema with 895 seats, was opened in 1908. The Giant (Гигант) pavilion with 600 seats was opened in 1910. The theatre had a brightly illuminated façade and screened the latest films (Landesman 1972: 25).

In 1910–1911 the largest cinemas in L’viv were opened, Lew and Kopernik (454 seats) (Gіerszewska 1995: 20).

In 1912, Ekaterinoslav opened the Gigant Cinema, the biggest in the city with 1,000 seats. The two-storey art nouveau style cinema with a facade over the smoothly rounded corner of the building became a real decoration of the city. During intermissions and before screenings, there was music in the spacious lobbies with upholstered furniture (Starostin 2004: 247).

When, on December 11, 1912, A. Schanzer opened in Kyiv another Express, the biggest and most luxurious in Ukraine. The original rich interior was created by a mosaic of colourful artificial marble, decorative sculptures, columns with bronze capitals, mouldings, and other details.

A spacious foyer with columns and velvet portieres, a lobby and a hall (26 x 17 m) three-storeys highs, where the parterre, boxes and balcony could seat 1,100 spectators – all generously illuminated with electric light emanating from original ornate chandeliers and sconces. There was a buffet on the ground floor, a small cinema hall on the first floor, entrances to the balcony of the large cinema hall and a stage where a second orchestra performed for those who were waiting for the next showing. The auditorium had special ventilation and the control room was made of iron and concrete. It was one of the first two-hall cinemas in Kyiv, and the best movie house of the city until it was destroyed in 1941 during World War II.

The theatre was a majestic sight. The magnificence of the interior decoration was striking. The Kievlianin newspaper detailed the opening of the new cinema:

Yesterday at 3 o’clock in the afternoon the inauguration took place of the first city cinema in Kyiv, built in the city mansion at 38, Kreshchatyk. The extensive building is located in a courtyard and adjoins the front house, and the entrance to the theatre is arranged from the street. Next to the entrance is a very spacious and richly decorated foyer, which has cloakrooms on one side and a buffet on the other. At the end of the foyer there are several entrances to the auditorium, which has the appearance of a real theatre. The auditorium is richly and beautifully furnished, and has all sorts of improvements, such as reclining seats, excellent ventilation, a sloping floor, etc. In addition to the seats in the parterre, the auditorium has a balcony with boxes. The only defect of the new theatre is that the screen is not big enough to show the pictures. Both the auditorium and the foyer, as well as other interior rooms, are designed in the Greek style. The building reportedly cost 200,000 roubles and was constructed by Mr. Schanzer on condition that he will have use of it for 12 years, for a rental fee of 22,000 roubles per year. After 12 years, the building will become the property of the town free of charge.

Вчера, в 3 часа дня, состоялось торжественное открытие первого городского кинотеатра в Киеве, сооруженного в городской усадьбе на Крещатике, 38. Обширное здание находится во дворе и примыкает вплотную к фасадному дому, вход в театр устроен с улицы. Рядом с входом находится очень просторное, богато отделанное фойе, с одной стороны которого устроены гардеробные, с другой стороны — буфет. В конце фойе несколько входов в зрительный зал, имеющий вид настоящего театра. Зал блещет богатством и красотой отделки и всевозможными усовершенствованиями, а именно: кресла с откидными сиденьями, прекрасная вентиляция, покатый пол и т. д. Помимо мест в партере, в зале имеется балкон с ложами. Единственным дефектом нового кинотеатра является недостаточно большой экран для демонстрирования картин. Как зрительный зал, так и фойе и другие внутренние помещения исполнены в греческом стиле. Постройка этого здания, как нам сообщают, обошлась около 200 тыс. руб. Выстроено оно г. Шанцером на условиях, что он пользуется им 12 лет, платя аренды по 22 тыс. руб. в год. После 12 лет постройка переходит безвозмездно в собственность города (Anonymous 1912b).

In March 1913, Dmitrii Kharitonov opened the Ampir cinema, the largest in Kharkiv. The 800-seat cinema was magnificently decorated, had a spacious foyer with mirrors and columns, and a ventilated auditorium with a box. Demonstration of films was accompanied by the music of a symphony orchestra.

In 1914, the Coliseum was opened in Poltava, becoming the biggest cinema in the city. On the ground floor there were cash registers and a small foyer. The second floor hosted a large foyer and a 350-seat auditorium (Gavrilenko 2004: 64–71).

At the same time, a two-storey, 500-seat cinema opened in Hadiach. It had natural light in the auditorium and a box office lobby. Large cinemas were also opened in Sevastopol’, Mariupol’ and Ekaterinoslav / Dnipro.

By the beginning of World War I, respectable cinemas were built, carefully considered to appeal to the public’s tastes. Symphonic orchestras accompanied the films in large cinemas. For instance, in the Grand-Théâtre Express in Kyiv, the orchestra consisted of 25 musicians, 60 in the Express Cinema in Kyiv, and 30 in the Ampir Cinema in Kharkiv (Mislavs’kiy 1989: 156).

Differentiation of ticket prices, according to Yuri Tsivian, already existed in early cinemas. Areas of higher or lower fares were defined arbitrarily and their locations varied. During the period of luxury cinemas, the pricing policy became more complicated. Due to the orientation of cinemas of that time towards the stylisation of the theatre space, the upper tier corresponded to the gallery with affordable prices. In order to prevent the elite audience from mixing with the general public, the balcony and the stalls were preferably provided with separate exits, which allowed for the creation of two isolated auditoriums on one screen (Tsiv’ian 1991: 42–43).

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an entrepreneur who decided to start showing films had to go abroad to buy a projector and a set of films to go with it. Naturally, the limited stock of films quickly bored the audience. If the theatre was relatively large, it could quickly recoup the cost of the purchased films, and the owner would go abroad again to buy a new programme. If the theatre made small returns, the owner was forced to move the programme to another town where there had either been no cinema or a cinema with a different programme.

Smaller mobile cinemas travelled around the country introducing audiences to the new spectacle. The larger ones filled their warehouses with huge stocks of used, but perfectly serviceable, films. They soon began to sell them at a significant discount, and then rented them out. Thus a system of film distribution emerged, which in 1907 finally defeated the former practice of buying films. Now another entrepreneur stood between the owner of the cinema and a film manufacturer – the distributor.

The sale price of used films that were suitable for exhibition usually amounted to no more than 40% of their original value. They were rented for a fortnight at 20 percent of their original price. Subsequently, the tariff and conditions for renting films kept changing (Ginzburg 1963: 38).

The introduction of the rental system proved to be quite progressive. At the same time as wholesale film dealers, entrepreneurs appeared who bought and distributed domestically produced films. The emergence of film distribution offices played a particularly important role. Most of them were shot by camera operators using their own funds who were unable to sell them to a wide audience.

The first distribution offices appeared in Ukraine in 1906–1907. In 1906, the Kyiv owner Sergei / Serhii Frenkel opened one of the first film distribution offices in Ukraine. In 1909, the Kyiv governor-general gave his approval to Frenkel’s First Russian Joint-Stock Cinema Society (Anonymous 1916: 30–31). By this time Frenkel had his own office and warehouse for the “exploitation of cinematographic pictures” for the entire empire, with an invested capital of one hundred thousand rubles (Zhurov 1959: 49).

Later, in 1909–1912, the Phoenix (Феникс) film rental office, the I. Orlovskii rental office, and others were opened in Kyiv (Zhurov 1959: 49). Orlovskii’s rental office served the Kyiv, Poltava, Chernihiv and Volyn’ provinces and had several of the first run run first screens in Kyiv. Its turnover reached 300,000 roubles (Anonymous 1916: 30–31).

In Odesa were founded A. Posel’skii’s rental office, Iuzhfilm's (Южфильм) rental office, a branch of D.I. Kharitonov’s rental office, and a branch of the Khudozhestvo Office, which operated cinemas in Odesa, Chișinău, Mykolaiv and Kherson (Rozenboym 2001: 18/21), a branch of M. Towbin’s rental office Siła / Sila (Сила), the Pathé brothers branch, the N.I. Kharitonov rental office and others (Landesman 1972: 112–119).

In Kharkiv, rental operations were handled by the Echo (Эхо) film office, the Apollo (Аполло) film office, the Salamandra (Саламандра) company, the Solntse (Солнце) film office, the Maiak (Маяк) film office, the Khudozhestvo (Художество) film office and others (Anonymous 1913b: 509).

In Ekaterinoslav / Dnipro, Khudozhestvo (Художество) office, Ol’shevskii's office, Shchetinin’s association and others were opened.

In L’viv, the Express Bio, the Kinofilm film office, the Kinograf film rental office and a branch of the Viennese Film Association of Philipp & Pressburger Allgemeine Kinematographen- und Film-Gesellschaft operated (Gіerszewska 1995: 185).

In 1907–1908, Pathé brothers and Gaumont opened branches in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, L’viv and Ekaterinoslav / Dnipro.

The development of the film distribution business streamlined and systematised cinema screenings. Pathé brothers and, soon, other foreign companies introduced a system of calendar releases of their films. For example, Pathé brothers released films on Tuesdays and Saturdays, adhering strictly to this schedule. Other firms also released films on certain days. Distribution offices received films between three and four days before the premiere, but were not allowed to release them before the scheduled time. This rule applied to all distributors.

Thus, a theatre working with a particular distributor had the opportunity to inform viewers of the days of programme changes and advertise upcoming premieres in advance. The rental system also had a favourable effect on the advertising and repertory policy.

The division of cinemas into first-run and second-run cinemas was completed between 1912 and 1913. Apart from film premieres, the big cinemas in the main streets also maintained their prestige and did not exhibit the ‘French genre’, as films with erotic content were then called.

As well as well-published brochures and other promotional material provided by distributors, cinemas issued individual programmes. They provided the audience with comprehensive information about the films on show, the film schedule, the show schedule, ticket prices, and so on. Extracts from film reviews published in major metropolitan film magazines became very popular. This practice had become widespread in Ukraine by 1914.

The systematic publication of film periodicals in Ukraine started in 1908. However, material on cinematography was also published in the non-specialised press. Several dozen film periodicals were published in Ukraine between 1908 and 1919. The most prominent were Teatr Varieté (Театр-варьете, 1906–1912, Odesa), Cinematograph (Синематограф, 1908-1909, Kharkiv), Kyiv Theatre Courier (Киевский театральный курьер, 1908–1916), Kinematograph (Кинематограф) (1908, Odesa), Kyiv Cinematograph (Киевский кинематограф, 1911–1912), Odesa Illusion Cinematograph (Одесский иллюзион-синематограф, 1911), Kіnozeіtung (1912, Czernowitz / Chernivtsi), Review of the Arts (Обозрение искусств, 1912–1914, Ekaterinoslav), Reference Theatre Bureau (Справочно-театральное бюро, 1912, Kharkiv), Scena і ekran / Stage and Screen (1913, L’viv), Screen (Экран, 1913, Kharkiv), Screen and Footlight (Экран и рампа, 1913, Kyiv), Kіno (1913–1914, L’viv), Cinema and Stage (Кинематограф и сцена, 1914, Kyiv), Screen and Stage (Экран и сцена, 1914, Kyiv), Iuzhanin (Южанин, 1914–1915, Kharkiv), Theatre and Cinema (Театр и кино, 1915–1919, Odesa).

The film distribution system was finally formed in 1913 and 1914. Practically all wholesale distribution in the Russian Empire was divided between three major companies: Pathé brothers (Pathé Frères / Бр. Пате), А Khanzhonkov & Co (Ханжонков и К°) and P. Thiemann & F. Reinhardt (Т/Д П. Тиман и Ф. Рейнгардт) (Ginzburg 1963: 26–27). Under their control were district rental offices, each of which serviced cinemas in several provinces by contract.

For example, in 1914 G. M. Zusman and Ia. A. Korn (Г. М. Зусман и Я. А. Корн) opened a distribution office in Odesa. Initially, the office specialised in renting American movies produced by Lloyd (Ллойд), Edison (Эдисон) and Bioscope (Биоскоп). With the beginning of the war, because of difficulties in delivering films to Russia, the office switched to the distribution of Russian-made films. It soon opened a large branch in Ekaterinoslav, which served the Odesa, Kharkiv and Ekaterinoslav provinces (Anonymous 1916: 12).

By the beginning of the First World War, over 40 film distribution offices were operating in Ukraine. There were five rental offices in Odesa at the initial stage of film distribution, and by 1917 their number had risen to 12 (Landesman 1972: 121). The entire film market was divided between several large distribution companies, each serving several regions.

S. Frenkel’s South-Western office was successfully involved in distribution operations. Up until 1912, the company’s headquarters was located in Kyiv and it also had branches in Moscow, St Petersburg, Kharkiv, Sevastopol’, Saratov, Samara and Tomsk, which operated about 300 cinemas. Kyiv was also home to the Phoenix Film Distribution Office (Феникс) and the distribution office of Orlovskii (Anonymous 1913a). In Odesa, Posel’skii’s office, Schwartz & Ebin's offices (Шварц и Эбин) and Iuzhfil’m (Южфильм). In Ekaterinoslav – the offices of Khudozhestvo, A. Ol’shevskii’s, and the F. Shchetinin association. In Kharkiv – offices of Proshin and Gordin (Прошин и Гордин), F. Dedikov (Ф. Дедиков), Record (Рекорд), Kharitonov (Т/Д Д. И. Харитонов).

Along with these major film distribution firms, offices which were primarily involved in re-releasing previously exhibited films also operated in Ukraine. As a rule, these businesses operated second-run cinemas and were not entitled to show certain films until they were picked up by distribution companies.

In 1912, the distribution policy of the Pathé brothers representation changed: the company management decided to hand over its monopoly distribution rights to various Russian companies serving various regions of the empire. According to the company’s management, this decision was aimed at protecting smaller distributors from unhealthy methods of competition and the practice of “disrupting productions”. The director of the Russian branch of the company, Maurice Gash, informed his clients in a circular that the monopoly renting rights in the southern regions were given to Kharitonov (Kharkiv region), Isai Spektor (Ekaterinoslav region), Orlovskii (Kyiv region), and Iosif Ermol’ev (Rostov region) (Gash 1912: 7).

The emergence of rental offices and the introduction of a rental system was of great importance for the development of domestic film production. Wholesalers purchased and produced domestically produced films. Distribution offices played an important role in distributing domestic newsreels which were, for the most part, shot by cameramen at their own expense.

Conclusion

Thus, in the early 1900s, the public’s interest in a new kind of entertainment was growing in Ukraine as elsewhere in the Russian Empire. Film exhibitors began to rent premises, which were rebuilt as cinemas. The practice of selling tickets with an indication of a seat in the auditorium completed the division of cinemas in the first-screen and second-screen. The introduction of fire safety rules radically affected the structure of cinemas: the size of foyers, auditoriums, control room and box office.

In 1907, a film distribution system emerged which definitively overcame the previous practice of film sales. This development brought order to and systematised screenings in cinemas and introduced a calendar system for releasing films.

Between 1913 and 1914, a film distribution system was finally established. Practically all wholesale distribution in the Russian Empire was divided between several major companies. Under their control were district film distribution offices, each of which serviced cinemas in several provinces based on contracts.

Although the film business before 1917 was concentrated in Moscow and Petrograd, it was also developing rapidly in the major cities of present-day Ukraine – Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, and Dnipro. These cities not only began producing films, but also opened film distribution offices that received films directly from foreign producers without intermediaries and served customers not only in their regions, but also opened offices in other major cities of the Russian Empire.

The intensive construction of cinemas should also be noted. The first purpose built movie theatre in the Russian Empire, the Bommer cinema, opened in Kharkiv in March 1908. Dmitrii Kharitonov’s cinema Ampir, which began its work in March 1913, with a capacity of 800 seats, was also a point of pride for Kharkiv. And the Express, the largest and most luxurious movie theatre of the Russian Empire, was opened in Kyiv in 1912. It existed until 1941, when it was destroyed during World War II.

After the outbreak of the Bolshevik-Ukrainian war in 1918, the centre of film production moved from Moscow and Petrograd to the southern regions – Kyiv, Odesa, and Yalta. However, this situation did not last long. After the final victory of the Bolsheviks, a new period of transition and the rebuilding of the film business in Ukraine began.

Volodymyr Myslavskyi
Kharkiv State Academy of Culture
volodymyr_myslavskyi@xdak.ukr.education

Bio

Volodymyr Myslavskyi holds a Doctor of Arts in Cinematography and Television from the Kharkiv State Academy of Culture, Ukraine. 2015-2019: Doctor of Arts, Cinematography and Television, Kharkiv State Academy of Culture, Ukraine. 2009- 2012: Master of Arts, Cinematography and Television, Kyiv National University of Theater, Cinema, and Television, Kyiv, Ukraine. 1987-1992: Bachelor of Arts, Cinematography, State University of Cinematography, Russia. Currently Prof. Myslavskyi is serving as the Head of the Department of Film Directing and Screenwriting at the Kharkiv State Academy of Culture. He is the author of 52 books and over 150 articles.

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Filmography

Lumière, Louis. 1895. L'Arroseur arrosé / The Sprinkler Sprinkled . Production Company Lumière.

Lumière, Louis. 1895. La sortie de l'usine Lumière à Lyon / Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory. Production Company Lumière.

Lumière, Louis. 1895. Démolition d'un mur / Demolition of a Wall. Production Company Lumière.

Lumière, Louis. 1895. Baignade en mer / A View of the Sea. Production Company Lumière.

Lumière, Louis. 1895. Repas de bébé / Baby’s Dinner. Production Company Lumière.

Cerf, Camille. 1896. Scène du couronnement du tsar de Russie / Scene from the Coronation of the Czar of Russia. Production Company Lumière.

[Director unknown]. 1896. The Imperial Majesties' departure from Paris for Saint-Cloud / Their Majesties' transfer from Paris to Saint-Cloud. Сompany Gaumont.

[Director unknown]. 1896. Their Majesties' stay in Paris / Tsar Nicholas II visiting Paris. Сompany Gaumont.

Fedeckі, Alfred 1896. Katanie na Krasnoii ploshchadi / Riding in Red Square. A. Fedeckі photo studio.

Fedeckі, Alfred 1896. Narodnoe gulianie na Konnoii ploshchadi / A public celebration held on Horse Square. A. Fedeckі photo studio.

Fedeckі, Alfred 1896. Dzhigitovka kazakov Pervogo Orenburgskogo polka / Dzhigitovka Cossacks of the Orenburg Regiment. A. Fedeckі photo studio.

Fedeckі, Alfred 1896. Perenesenie Ozerianskoii ikony Bozh’eii Materi iz Kuriazhskogo monastyria v Khar’kov / Transfer of the Icon of Our Lady of Ozeriansk from the Monastery of Kuriazhev to Kharkiv. A. Fedeckі photo studio.

[Director unknown]. 1896. The Serpentine Dance / Danse serpentine. Robert W. Paul Productions.

[Director unknown]. 1896. English Boxers. Robert W. Paul Productions.

[Director unknown]. 1896. Fire in London. Robert W. Paul Productions.

Lumière, Louis, Auguste Lumière. 1896. L'arrivée d'un train en gare de à La Ciotat / The Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat. Production Company Lumière.

Paul, Robert. 1896. Traffic on Tower Bridge. Robert W. Paul Productions.

Fedeckі, Alfred 1897. Fokusnik Al'bani / Albani, the Magician. A. Fedeckі photo studio.

Suggested Citation

Myslavskyi, Volodymyr. 2023. “The Formation of the Film Business in Ukraine (1896–1916)”. The Haunted Medium II: Moving Images in the Russian Empire (ed. by Rachel Morley, Natascha Drubek, Oksana Chefranova, and Denise J. Youngblood). Special issue of Apparatus. Film, Media and Digital Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe 16. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17892/app.2023.00016.330

URL: http://www.apparatusjournal.net/

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